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The Essay as an Academic and Literary Form
Writing Essay Exams
Linear composing strategies
Non-linear composing strategies
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Drafting: The Essay as an Academic and Literary Form
Our English word essay comes from the French verb essayer
which means to try or to attempt. In an essay, a writer tries or attempts
to prove an idea that is stated as a thesis or hypothesis. The body of
the essay presents the data or evidence the writer has gathered to prove
or support this thesis. So one way to understand an essay as a literary
form is to think of it as the written trial of an idea.
Titles
An essay's title can serve several important functions:
- If it is unusual, shocking, or clever, it can grab the reader's attention
and arouse curiosity.
- If it announces the subject of the essay, it can establish the focus.
- If it poses a question, it can imply the organization of the essay
as the answer to the question.
Here is a good exercise for brainstorming titles.
Title Exercise
1. Copy out of your draft a sentence that could serve as a title.
2. Write a sentence that's not in the draft to use as a title.
3. Write a title that is a question beginning with What, Who, When,
or Where.
4. Write a title that is a question beginning with How or Why.
5. Write a title that is a question beginning with Is/Are, Do/Does,
or Will.
6. Pick out of the essay some concrete image--something that the reader
can hear, see, taste, smell or feel--to use as a title.
7. Pick another concrete image out of the essay. Look for an image that
is a bit unusual or surprising.
8. Write a title that begins with an -ing verb.
9. Write a title beginning with On (e.g., On Golden Pond).
10. Write a title that is a lie about the essay.
11. Write a one-word title--the most obvious one possible.
12. Write a two-word title.
13. Write a three-word title.
14. Write a four-word title.
15. Write a five-word title.
16. Write a less obvious one-word title.
17. Think of a familiar saying or the title of a book, song or movie that
might fit your essay.
18. Take the title you just wrote and twist it by changing a word or creating
a pun on it.
19. Do the same with another saying of a book, song or movie.
20. Find two titles you've written so far that you might use together in
a double title. Join them together with a colon.
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Thesis Statements
A thesis statement is a concise, clear statement of your assertion about
your subject. It is the one sentence that states the idea that is on trial
in your essay.The presentation "Thesis Statement"
explains in detail what a thesis does, how to write a good thesis, and
what errors to avoid in thesis statements.
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Introductions
The first paragraph of an essay has several important functions: While
the title grabs the reader's attention and may give an idea of the subject,
the introduction is the writer's greeting to the reader: "Hi, I'm
glad to see you. This is what I want to talk about today. I think you will
be interested in what I have to say because this topic affects you too
(relevance). Most people seem to think that _______________________, but
I assert ___(thesis statement)_______...."
Here are some strategies you can use to begin an essay:
- When you can't think of anything else to say, open with your thesis
statement.
- You can begin by telling the reader how and why you became engaged
in the topic.
- Try opening with a little story or anecdote that leads up to your thesis.
This anecdote can set the tone for your essay.
- Alert your reader with a surprising, perhaps even shocking, fact or
statistic.
- Open with a question that you plan to answer with your thesis.
- Meet the reader on his or her own turf, especially if you think the
reader may be opposed to your thesis. You do this by beginning with the
reader's counterarguments.
Sometimes you will begin a first draft with a paragraph that brings
you, the writer, mentally into the writing situation. You may make obvious
statements about what the essay is going to be about or what you hope to
accomplish. Or you may open with apologies or other statements that show
your lack confidence in yourself or your writing. And sometimes you may
open with an old worn out expression, a cliche: "Crash diets can be
penny wise but pound foolish." It's okay to begin a working draft
this way, but as you revise you will want to rewrite this introduction
so that you address the reader's needs and interests rather than you own
insecurities.
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Body Paragraphs
In the body of the essay, you will present your reader with the data
you have to support or prove your claim. As you can see in Planning,
this data may come from print, electronic or personal sources. As you begin
drafting, you will want to create a pattern of organization for this data
so that your reader can easily follow your discussion. You can use a linear
approach to organizing data by creating an outline
or following a model; you can use a non-linear
approach by creating a web and then a collage.
There are a number of traditional rhetorical strategies for developing
paragraphs. These modes of development help the writer explore a topic
in depth and develop support for a thesis. These are an array of methods
for explaining and analyzing a topic:
Knowing these modes of development helps you to explore a topic in depth
and then select from among them the data that best supports your thesis
or claim. Sometimes a carefully focused essay will use only one mode, and
the entire essay will be organized by that pattern. An essay may use two
modes such as definition and example, or the body of the paper may be any
combination of any number of these.
If you are having trouble developing depth or length in your papers,
try to add one or more paragraphs using these modes. A skillful strategy
for developing any paper is by adding specific examples
and illustrations that show the reader what you are talking about by
creating vivid images in the reader's mind.
You can also collaborate with your writing
group for ideas as you develop each draft of your paper.
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Transitions
Transitions are the bridges readers use to move from one paragraph to
the next. If the writer does not provide this bridge for smooth reading,
then the reader must pause at the end of each paragraph and make a mental
leap to the next one. This is one of the factors that can make writing
seem choppy. In other words, transitional words and phrases connect one
idea to the next, within and among paragraphs. Conjunctive adverbs and
transitional expressions are common ways to make these connections. You
can also use repetition of keywords from the last sentence of one paragraph
to the first sentence of the next to create a clear connection. Parallelism--the
repeating of grammatically equivalent structures several times--also creates
coherence. Notice how, in the Declaration of Independence, Thomas Jefferson
uses parallelism to tie together that long list of offenses the King has
committed against the Colonists. Repeated tempos and sounds create connections
among sentences and ideas. As an exercise, you might try to find all the
transitions I've used in this paragraph. How do these connectors tie together
the different kinds of transitions I've discussed here?
In Quick Access (19), Lynn Troyka gives us this table of transitions:
Relationships Signalled
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Conjunctive adverbs and transitional expressions
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| Addition |
also, besides, equally important, furthermore, in addition, moreover |
| Comparison |
in the same way, likewise, similarly |
| Concession |
granted, naturally, of course |
| Contrast |
at the same time, despite that, however, in contrast, instead, nevertheless,
on the contrary, on the other hand, otherwise, still |
| Emphasis |
certainly, indeed, in fact, of course |
| Example or illustration |
as an illustration, for example, for instance, namely, specifically,
thus |
| Result |
accordingly, as a result, consequently, hence, then, therefore, thus |
| Summary |
finally, in conclusion, in short, in summary |
| Time sequence |
eventually, finally, meanwhile, next, now, subsequently, then, today,
tomorrow, yesterday. first, second, third... |
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Conclusions
The final paragraph of an essay should bring the discussion to an end.
Here you make your parting comments to your reader. The conclusion is the
writer's last opportunity to accomplish his or her purpose with the reader.
It is also the part of the essay the reader is most likely to remember--here
the writer literally does have the last word. Some strategies for strong
conclusions include these:
- Call the reader to action to help support your central assertion--especially
if your thesis makes a claim of policy: "We should...."
- Close with an anecdote that vividly illustrates the thesis or gives
an example of what will happen if the reader acts.
- Give the reader a forecast for the future if your thesis is adopted
or not adopted.
- Close with a startling fact or statistic that underlines your main
point.
- Answer the question raised in your introduction.
- In longer papers, summarize the main points you've made and restate
your thesis.
- If you can't think of anything else to say, write your thesis statement
as your last sentence.
Avoid using a direct quotation or verse as your conclusion. Remember,
this is your opportunity as the writer to have the last word. Don't give
that position of power away to someone else.
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